Lowes in new smyrna beach fl

Hi! Anyone is welcome! Feel free to send me a chat/dm if you want to have a new friend 🥹 (especially if you’re a girl, I really need female friends)
So, ahem, anyways, about me: Recently graduated (last January. My degree is medical lab science. I’m going to get my license soon, and I want to work in another country since this place is hell), I got two dogs, I do small business, and I don’t really have that much hobbies but I recently loved baking
I hope that we can be good friends! I only use snap, so I hope you use it too. (No discord, whatsapp, only snap, please!)
This is me! You can send a picture too but I won’t require you to do it. Also, please introduce yourself too! (Hi/hello or low effort msgs will be ignored 🥹)

Hi BAbike!
I've never biked in NorCal and am in charge of route planning for a small group of out-of-town folks for an upcoming weekend (Fri - Sun). We're an assorted bunch of people looking forward to trying out off-road bikepacking (we're all relatively new to both off-road and touring/bikepacking, but not entirely). I'm a the least fit and most newbie to gravel/ beginner mountain biking and want to make sure I'm planning something mostly reasonable. We're planning on starting in Fairfax and have a Friday night reservation at Coast Campground in Point Reyes.
Can anyone give me feedback on the route for day 1? https://www.strava.com/routes/3083205549276558224 I think day 2 will be low-ish mileage putzing around Point Reyes-adjacent areas and day 3 will mostly be a reversal of day 1. I tried to obsess over route details from various sources, but I'm worried about conditions after the very wet winter and also that I may have missed some key relevant details since it is alllll new to me.
I initially booked Saturday night at Hawk campground (with the intent of leaving from SF) but that just feels like too much, so I'm going to try to get another night in Point Reyes (maybe Wildcat?). If that doesn't work: (1) does Sam P Taylor really not turn away bikes? I don't think we would be rolling in particularly early, and it would be on a Saturday night... and (2) any opinion on Olema Campground? I'm open to other suggestions
We are all coming in from less treed areas and are excited for redwoods. I'd originally had us going through Muir Woods and am bummed that I had to cut that out in order to be reasonable. Are there other areas that would be recommended as spectacular for desert folks? Any cheese or ice cream recommendations if we get to spend day 2 putzing around?
Thank you so much!!

I’m 22F, currently living as a junior designer in a biggest city in my country. I want to move to another city with a beach next year. (After 2 years of working here) I went there several times before, lived about a month 2 years ago. Its my favorite city.
I was depressed for few months working here. I went there for few days to freshen up. I loved it. The beach life really fits my personality and lifestyle.
It will be pretty hard to get a designer job there. If I do it will be very low income, same as now. Rent will be little cheaper.
My parents say it might be an unreasonable choice to move there just because I like it. I work in a small company now, so they expect me to work in a bigger one after my experience in this small one. They tell me, I’m too young and should be in a big city, working in a big company, earning money.
I didn’t take a year off my college, got job even before I graduated. I want some fun vacation life for a while.. I’m tired.
What should I do? Any advice would be appreciated!

My boyfriend only just found out he was diabetic a month ago. Everyone assumed he was probably type 2 because he is a big guy but he had literally lost 60lbs in the matter of 2 months without trying and was basically congratulated by our family doctor for it until she saw the blood results.
Well, he got his glucometer last week and his endocrinologist told him to do four days where he did one day before breakfast, next day lunch, next day dinner, next day bed time, and then take a break from the finger pokes for a few days and then repeat. So he did that and his numbers were as followed: 18, 18, 20, 23. This was all very new to us so we didn’t really question it, and assumed that the numbers would fix themselves with a low carb diet and waiting for the Metformin to kick in. We saw the diabetic educator on Friday and told her what his numbers were. She said that they were high but reiterated the low carb diet and Metformin needing to start working, and wanted to see him in two weeks to see his improvement.
Well, fast forward to Sunday two days after the diabetic educator appointment. He had had a few pretty good low carb days and I decided on Sunday night that I wanted him to start testing himself again and that the few days of not testing were up. His glucometer read 30 and it told us to contact our health provider immediately. We went immediately to the hospital where he was diagnosed with DKA and was admitted for immediate intervention.
Doing more research now and having a better understanding of the numbers, I am unsure why the diabetic educator did not show more urgency with those initial numbers, considering that anything over 16 can be critical. He is on his insulin now and he is doing better but it is very frustrating with how all of this is turned out so far with his new diagnosis.

Hello good people. Here I am hoping to meet and vibe with someone. I know reddit isn’t the best of place’s, But hey who wouldn’t like some fairy tale in their life.
So to tell you about me, I'm a 24 year old who is very outgoing and loves to experience and do new stuff to keep me going. I'm very social and easy to make friends with. I'm articulate, mature and Refined.
I'm an avid football follower and I support the Red Devils-Manchester united. Well even though they haven’t won much since I started following them back in 2015 they’re very close to my heart. I guess one thing that you can take from this is my loyalty haha. So if you ever need a buddy to watch or discuss anything football, I'm your goto guy.
I try and game but suck real hard at it. It’s the perfect example of insanity. I try and try again to improve and funnily think raging in a mmorpg like League of legends with the most toxic players would help me relax after long day of work. So yeah if you ever need a noob to play with hit me up.Recently I have also been trying to cultivate the habit of reading some books so if you are someone who reads books and would like to help me out to do so your help is appreciated
I’m the kind of person who notices little things and would like to surprise you with them. A great listener who loves to talk about random things and knows how to keep the conversation going
I bet that I could beat you at binge watching a series any day. I’m a big weeb, We could watch or rewatch any series under the sun.
I get excited a lot even about small things and would probably discuss it with you. My political views lean to the left and would welcome any kind of respectful discussions. Not saying that this would be completely sfw. But if we reach a stage where both of us are comfortable discussing nsfw stuff and taking things physical I have my kinks and turn ons which we can discuss when we are comfortable around each other
I’m 5’7 with a normal bod. I talk a lot and sometimes not talk at all and just listen to you. I would want to be friends with your friends and get along with them just fine
I love and cherish all my friendships and relationships. The kind of person who you will come to talk if you’re feeling low or to share your success with
So if you have reached so far do not hesitate to drop in a text. I just need some new friends over here. I'm 420 friendly and we could also go for clubbing.
Tldr:- So long story short I'm looking for people to hangout with. Potentially a date if things go well

TLDR: Learning Street Fighter (and most of the other fighting games on the market) is very similar to learning a new musical instrument. You should treat learning and mastering it as you would treat learning and mastering a new musical instrument. You will have much more manageable expectations towards your own performance and growth.
Imagine this scenario: you bought a Yamaha keyboard last friday and now you're frustrated because you can't play along with other more experienced musicians. You start to question yourself: do I suck? Is the keyboard just a very hard instrument? Should I just go back to playing the maracas instead?
If you are somewhat familiar any instrument you know they require practice, study, muscle memory and timing. But, once you grab a hold of good fundamentals, learning a new song becomes much easier and in no time you are able to improvise grooves and try out new melodies just by listening to songs.
Guess what? Fighting games are Just. Like. That. There's a lot to learn in Practice mode: buttons, timing, dexterity, muscle memory, combos, set-ups, anti air responses, etc. Then, with good fundamentals you are able to learn new characters very fast or even try out new fighting games and not struggle so hard while learning the new game.
My first Fighting Game was SFV back in 2016. I lost 1000s of games and struggled A LOT. I thought about quitting multiple times, as I felt I wasn't making any meaningful progress. Then, as someone who tried learning instruments in the past, I understood that I wasn't taking my training seriously. I wanted to learn and improve in a very complex game, but all I was doing to work on that was throwing a couple of hadokens in the training room for 10min before launching myself in ranked mode.
After realizing that I started to research youtube videos for character guides and started to plan my training routines in order to improve at the game (like you'd do if you were seriously trying to learn a new instrument). Results came surprisingly fast and I started to win a lot of games. Now, without a doubt, Fighting Games are my favorite genre in all of videogames.
As a bonus, during the pandemic I bought a bass guitar and, because of my recent experience learning fighting games, decided to learn how to play it on my own while applying all I learned while practicing fighting games. It worked and now I'm able to play all the songs I enjoy easily and the thought of starting a band crosses my mind from time to time.
Here's a very basic newcomer training checklist:
1.Learn one basic combo (with a jump in and without a jump in). Practice 10 times from each side of the screen. If you miss one start back at one.

1. Learn your best pokes. Usually one standing and one low. Experiment with their range, be comfortable positioning yourself always in your poke range. Projectiles go here if your character has them.
   
2. Learn at least one anti air option. The most damaging combos come from above, so you don't want to allow your opponent to do that to you. Learn a move or a button that you can do in reaction to a jumping opponent.
   
3. Learn how to block. Be good at blocking highs, lows and cross-ups. Practice from both sides as well, 10 times in a row.
   
4. Go play matches! Play only ranked. ALWAYS rematch (unless your opponent is lagging or griefing), get used to losing and use your defeats as a learning opportunity.
   
5. Watch one or two of your previous matches replays a day and try to figure out what you did wrong. Note those scenarios to practice later.
   

Doing this routine should get you ready to set out in your own journey, there's plenty more to learn, but the path is yours to take (:

So I've been dealing with tenants down below me for over a year now. I've been writing noise complaints to my office since then because they like to slam doors, have loud sex and slide furniture for no reason.
Well now the female who lives there is pregnant and due soon. This chick doesn't work, stays home all the time, SMOKES (again shes pregnant), she told me she has a lot of health conditions, her "husband" only comes around the 1st of the month and she's due soon and lives in a one bedroom apartment.
Time and time again this chick and her people who come by are always loud. The two other tenants and me hardly make noises as we are barely home. I've had to call the police on them several times because I guess the chick is babysitting or something and has this kid who comes over and stomps and yells.
I'm so tired of entitled people in general, even moreso with breeders who expect others to just deal with them and their goblins. I understand times are hard and people need to make due but if the situation at hand is already difficult why are you involving others into it? Then have the audacity to be a bigger asshole when people have low tolerance to your mess?
My lease isn't up until next year but I'm planning to find something new and better! Until then I'm writing my office of noise complaints.

I was searching for some good budget IEMs and at first I thought about Moondrop because y'know, Moondrop (Never tried even a single entry-level IEMs, I'm way too poor, I don't even have previous standards of quality for a proper research, don't judge me).
I have to add that I ALWAYS wanted some real quality and I love headphones/earphones/headsets/earbuds (Hate speakers, I don't like blasting people with my music or conversations) since I was little, if I had money I would be an actual Audiophile but right now I'm just a random wannabe (As I always have been).
Then I came across the Blon bl03 and the price is obviously higher, but reviews say their sound is better (For my almost nonexistent standards) and detachable wire seems better than Moondrop Chu or Jiu.
No doubt I would have to buy a better wire and better uhh, in-ear thingies (New to this, don't know terminology), but yeah, reviews say they are thrash and I can see why by just looking at a photo of them, let alone a video.
So, back to the title, my budget is really low but right now I'm willing to hand over a kidney just a to have some quality in my ears, if anyone has something better for a lower price, would appreciate, if someone has an input or warning about the blon bl03 please let me know so I can consider it

If you are only in your teens, the prospect of driving a car you actually own is certainly a huge milestone in your life if it indeed becomes true. Having a vehicle at such a very young age is a rare achievement. Not only does it come with a ton of bragging rights, it likewise symbolizes an individual's growing independence as well as maturity. It paves the way to a more assertive journey. You now have a hand to steer your future to greater heights and way farther distance. To be entrusted with a vehicle is no easy feat, as it also implies the growing trust a parent or guardian has in a kid. To a certain extent, you now have the freedom to plot your own destiny.
For whatever reason, receiving a vehicle should and must feel rewarding. Similarly, the process should be as painlessly effortless as possible. One way of guaranteeing this is by checking vehicle history beforehand to ensure that a car is worth purchasing.
While a teenager will need their parent or guardian's written signature when finalizing a car deal, it is important to discuss their preferences and needs with those who already have experience in motor vehicles to make a wise decision on the matter. Since the teen will be using the car, they must be asked what they think is the best fit for them. The parent or guardian’s goal is to ensure proper guidance to arrive at an educated decision. Without further ado, here are the used car buying tips for teenage drivers:
Work on a financial plan
Having a sound financial plan is the start of getting a good car. The buyer must carefully consider the available options to reach the best bang for their buck. Then, there is an estimation for a probable long-term cost—the series of payments that has to be made by a new car owner not only on the amortization aspect but also on everything else that comes with the car. On top of the price tag, there are the miscellaneous fees from registration and titling. Plus, insurance, gas, maintenance, detailing, repairs and others of note. All these expenses can be a significant dent in personal earnings.
The trick to lowering overall cost is to invest a lot on initial payment. Pay more on a downpayment, and you will have to pay less on interest during the period of amortization. If you can not afford to pay a significant amount of downpayment, you may opt for a shorter mode of payment. Your monthly amortization may be big, but a good portion of your payment goes to the principal instead of the interest. Both options are healthy for your own personal finances.
Another important point of deliberation is the vehicle type. Obviously, different vehicle type works in varying circumstances. There is no one size fits all shoes. On the one hand, SUVs are great on rough roads because of their superb performance and functionality. On the other hand, city cars work well on heavy traffic, narrow streets due to their size and agility and fuel consumption is a lot more economical. It has been a proven rule that everything else (even and the same) the smaller the car is, the less the maintenance becomes. But of course, the brand of car is also of important consideration. There are cars that are very expensive to maintain because of the scarcity of parts and service stations that are knowledgeable of the type of automobile.
If the need is short-term and the budget tight, another good option is to opt for a leased vehicle.
Do your homework
Looking for the right car may take time and may run contrary to one’s impulse. Yet, one must look beyond the what-ifs and pay more attention to the actual circumstances to be in touch with reality when making a decision.
You have to go out and see cars you like in person. Check their details first hand with your own eyes. Pay considerable attention to each car sale post being checked since many of them could be fraud waiting to happen. They are not necessarily ‘best buys’ just because their sellers said so.
In addition, knowing whom you transact with can help you avoid trouble. Being diligent in conducting a background check on sellers can pay off. Who knows, unless their personal identification can be authenticated, their online identity might be bogus. You might want to give them a call to gauge their sincerity before meeting them.
Red flags may not be apparent online. However, the buyer must not lower their guard on tricks the scammer may pull off, especially when meeting the seller and the car face-to-face. It might be prudent to bring a trusted companion with you as a protective measure. Should the need arise, they may also offer a sensible second opinion on your purchase. As much as possible, meet the seller halfway on neutral ground, preferably in a public space that is safe and visible to the public, so that you will have fewer things to worry about.
Don't let your being young affect your assertiveness and prudence. Don't allow the seller to bully their way just because you are young. Remember that you are the buyer, and buyers should always be in the position of power in any transaction. Alternatively, you may also meet the seller on their business or home address as a way to confirm their authenticity. A fly-by-night site is easy to notice.
Test drive the car
Test drive is a crucial part of the car buying stage. This is where you attempt to get the feel of the vehicle you plan on driving for a long time. Depending on the situation, the driving impression can either make or break the car deal. At this stage, issues that are not put into words or unrecorded by vehicle reports at the time of the testing may be discovered.
Test driving a car is probably the last chance a buyer may confirm if the seller were not dubious and was honest with disclosed vehicle details. For this reason, it is crucial to allot an hour or two of testing since a brief driving experience may not reveal the full extent of the driving experience.
Test the vehicle in as diverse terrain and environment as possible. If the seller can accompany you, that would be great. You can ask them any questions that may come to mind. Clarify any doubts you have before you forget them.
Consider safety
No matter a person’s car driving experience, safety will always be of paramount importance. It must never be compromised for the sake of low price. Even if a car has a good body styling and multimedia system, it is as good as a garage display if it is not safe for road use.
To ensure that you don’t go by that route, it would be in your best interest to dig deeper into prospective cars. Read auto expert reviews on the model—review customer feedback on the vehicle and the seller. Subject the unit to a professional mechanic’s diagnostic test. Only then can you confidently say that your decision is well-thought-out and founded on many facts about the vehicle.
Making intensive preparation for a vehicle is a tenuous job, but it is totally worth trying to ensure that the earliest driving experience will be memorable and enjoyable. This is more important if you are just a teener and it is your first time owning an automobile.

With the update dropping the new pay quests and new premium shop content I mentioned to my wife and our boyfriend (we’re polyamorous) that I wanted some pocket money to buy some more moonstones so I could buy things in game. And it got me thinking. I’ll happily pay for extra content because I only play this game. I don’t use my switch for anything else unless I’m playing with friends and that’s not something I do often. So I don’t feel guilty or bad for spending my pocket money on this game. I love it and I love the new styles and outfits. I’d only be irritated if I had to pay to play the main story line or main friendship quests. But to me this just feels like it’s optional content for those who want to do the extra content. That’s no different than other games. They have to have pay to play things or else the game would lose funding and would quickly become obsolete or trashy like other low budget games have before. And I will more than happily buy into whatever it takes to keep my favorite game and my happy place from deteriorating.

Need to know knowledge that can protect the species. This message is limited knowledge, formal debriefing is scripted elsewhere however, the common knowledge basis for intelligence findings & immediate persistent communications help to find new evidence where topics that have less information get covered and we loose intel. So let me start by saying we found nothing positive in our Area 54 Pentagon findings, something very troubling is happening & we have been working diligently directly with Central Intelligence to provide coverage for the entirety of our home planet, planet earth.
This message is limited in time framing due to immediate threats in viral scripting repeater technologies, the topic of the computerized brain module (CBM) & broadcasting system that regulates a large component of our earthly living experience here. So redactions will occur no later than August 9th, (8/9) where the peak of viral scripting starts to peak in unconscious gravitational patterning.
——————-
So what is blue beam? Projection devices & a spectrum data specific component of the human body’s brain signals that relate to the planet earth in conjunction with planet Saturn. In alignment with the human organism a particular activity of the central spot between the eyes on the forehead connected to what is termed the (Third Eye), the blue beam spectrum of human light projection & also light induction.
So what did we find on this blue beam spectrum of light? Well the topic is a complicated matter. The light spectrum seems to be a highly highly regulated platform, a computerized device seems to operate the largest majority of the human population unconsciously producing specific brain patterning behaviors & frequencies that regulate the body’s internal functions & organisms coherent productive thought processes. This is happening through a sequence of light adjustment techniques that have been observed to be regulated into specific bandwidths that synchronize with the planet Saturn, projecting the various visible light energy environments that humans call physics based phenomenon or atomic & subatomic particle physics (the visible earth).
So when we change the bandwidth of blue beam, the physics changes as an adjusting light substance (the environment we observe of solid particles), yet something is changing it back repeatedly, autonomously, without concern for our interest to adjust our own blue beam projections.
At the Pentagon Area 54 we observe telepathic communications & also a heads up display communication system. It seems to be functional, responsive, highly calculated & operating a large data network of these blue beam channels, we refer to them as layer earth environments. When the channels changed the physics changed & we had a chat with the operators of these telepathic networks. Worked psychology patterning to develop a confidence in their programming processes & low & behold we gained access to something troubling. The blue beam spectrum of light offered to visiting Extraterrestrial Species have accumulated a farming environment. Saying that the human species is a food source, exactly like we have food sources, the latter space environment has extraterrestrials that use a type of memory blocking technology in conjunction with a physics splitter system of energy regulation. It dampers the human body functions while it siphons off life-form energy directly into a food replication system of resources. So what did we find? Food, humans, in the exact same places where the food we find at the grocery stores on one blue beam channel, simultaneously supports another food supply system on several separate blue beam channels. The same grocery stores with humans on the shelves, yet the channels are restricted to visiting extraterrestrial species. That is essentially the foundation for the CIA intelligence debrief & what we have recovered in knowledge from channel spectrum adjusters.
-Moderator Jesse

Hi. I was born and raised in New Jersey. I have a degree in education. I was a high school mathematics teacher and also a part time college professor. Since then I have moved to Florida and became a home owner that transition into aviation as a career. Currently working from home as an air traffic controller. This shift started when I had free time to study during the pandemic.
I like going to the beach. But unfortunately as a teacher you often stumble upon students and it is very weird and inappropriate to be seen in non professional clothing. I’ve been trying to stop drinking beer. I have a problem with drinking it as a beverage all the time. But now I limit myself to 1-2 cans a day. Now it’s just a nice refresher for when I’m at the beach. Also make sure you clean after yourself and keep the beach clean.
Im married. I don’t have any kids. I can’t actually have kids due to some issues on my end. We are trying though through other methods. Been married for 9 years. I nerd and geek out over mathematics and anything with numbers. Not so much a literature person but considering im trying to make friends, hopefully if I get messages they will be addressing everything that I shared in this post. Let’s have an actual conversation.

Insurance broker software gives insurers a competitive advantage over their competitors by providing an unparalleled customer experience. More and more businesses recognize the benefits of utilizing modern broker management systems. Irrespective of whether a company employs 10 or 1000 brokers; adopting a broker management solution is critical because it helps brokers stay connected with insurers and customers. Furthermore, technological advancements have allowed insurers to shift to cloud-based insurance broker software solutions. The best insurance broker software that are hosted on the cloud has several functionalities and advantages over their traditional counterparts.

What is Cloud-Based Insurance Broker Software?

A cloud-based insurance broker is a broker management system that is hosted in the cloud and enables data access from anywhere. It is a comprehensive platform where all broker tools, software, and data are hosted in the cloud. Cloud computing enables the delivery of all of the features and components to end users over the internet.
This type of software is frequently referred to as software as a service (SaaS). It is different from traditional in-house or on-premise software, which would be deployed and run on a company's servers.

Benefits of Cloud-Based Insurance Broker Software

Seamless Installation

Most organizations have a deep-seated notion that software installation is a lengthy and complex procedure, but this is no longer the case with cloud-based broker software solutions. A modern cloud-based broker software may be up and running in a matter of minutes. All you truly require is an internet connection. After you sign in online, you can instantly begin using the software and making use of its features. You don't have to spend time setting up hardware, paying for infrastructure and software upkeep, or hiring an IT professional for management. You also no longer have to worry about complicated installations, data transfer, or even updates because your cloud service provider handles all of that.

Anytime, Anywhere Access

Unlike conventional on-site broker systems, which are only accessible from the workplace during business hours, cloud-based insurance broker software provides the most benefits. A cloud-based software enables brokers to get the information they need by providing access to the platform from anywhere - at the office or on the way home - and on any device - smartphones, tablets, laptops, or desktops. Making urgent sales calls on the go, updating a sales proposal, rapidly finding a prospect's contact information, or sending an email to the customer are all possible with a cloud-based broker software.

Ease of Use

A cloud broker software not only keeps your customer data accessible at all times, but it's also simple to use. Every platform's onboarding process is unique, but the best insurance broker software is one that does not have a steep learning curve. You'll be ready to go running in minutes thanks to the straightforward onboarding procedure.
Brokers can import and sync current client data, modify details as needed, and tailor fields and reports to the sales process. The cloud system also makes it simple to send reminders, acquire new leads, manage existing customer information and interactions, and send emails to follow up. If you run into problems, simply contact the software company's customer care team for assistance.

Cost-Savings

Cloud-based insurance broker software solutions don't call for significant capital investment. Moving to a cloud system is a low-risk undertaking with a huge potential benefit. The services provided can save your brokers time by handling data management, allowing them to focus on selling and bringing in more money. Furthermore, because a cloud system requires fewer resources to maintain, you won't need to engage a large IT crew to administer it.
Some cloud platforms include a variety of subscription options, which means you should keep an eye on rising expenses as your staff and the type of features you require grow.

Smooth Integration

Legacy, stand-alone systems may not be flexible or integrated enough to satisfy the demands of most organizations. In a small business setting, information sharing amongst available technologies is critical.
The best broker software systems in the cloud are built to be readily connected with third-party applications. A cloud-based platform can be readily integrated with other apps and software, such as productivity tools and email integrations, to help you complete work more efficiently. It also allows you to obtain complete visibility into the brokerage process.
CRM, accounting tools, marketing automation, document management system, social media platforms, and claims software can all be linked with cloud broker solutions. Popular email clients such as Gmail and Microsoft Outlook can be integrated with the cloud broker software.

Conclusion

The insurance industry is highly competitive. To that end, insurers must leverage modern, innovative platforms. The cutting-edge features of the cloud-based insurance broker software will help you to improve your brokerage processes. As a result, you can enjoy higher renewal and sales rates.

I am a complete newbie here, just sorted out my clarifying poo and new shampoo/cowash, etc . My boyfriend, whom I live with, and wholeheartedly supports me, decided he too wants to participate in this new form of self care, and has decided he doesn't want to use any sulfate shampoo etc. He is Asian and keeps his hair short with a fade so... No waves/curls, nothing. But he insists so who am I to tell him no? Anyway, he used some VO5 last night, no conditioner, and started today's shower with low poo (😂) I also got a wide tooth shower comb, which he called me out tonight and complained I didn't tell him which step to use the comb. I'm crying, I love this man so much 🤣

1. Digital Communication 14.1. Introduction to Digital Communication Digital communication is made from two words - digital and communication. Digital refers to the discrete time-varying signal. Communication refers to the exchange of information between two or more sources. Digital communication as a whole refers to the exchange of digital information between the sender and receiver using different devices and methods. The data transmission using analog methods for long-distance communication suffers from distortion, delays, interferences, and other losses. To overcome these problems, the digitization and sampling of signals using different techniques help in making the transmission process more efficient, clear, and accurate. Digital communication is a popular technology used today in electronics. It allows us to access video conferencing, digital meetings, online education, etc. The data can travel up to long distances within a second with the help of the internet and other modes of digital communication. It not only saves money but also saves time and effort. It has also raised the standard of an individual's social, political, and economic life. 14.2. Networks and Busses The wires between the tank and the monitoring location is called a bus or a network. The distinction between these two terms is more semantic than technical, and the two may be used interchangeably for all practical purposes. The term “bus” is usually used in reference to a set of wires connecting digital components within the enclosure of a computer device, and “network” is for something that is physically more widespread. There are many types of buses and networks. Each one has its own applications, advantages, and disadvantages. 12.2.1. Short-distance busses 12.2.1.1. PC/AT Bus used in early IBM-compatible computers to connect peripheral devices such as disk drive and sound cards to the motherboard of the computer.

12.2.1.2. PCI Another bus used in personal computers, but not limited to IBM-compatibles. Much faster than PC/AT. Typical data transfer rate of 100 Mbytes/second (32 bit) and 200 Mbytes/second (64 bit). 12.2.1.3. PCMCIA A bus designed to connect peripherals to laptop and notebook sized personal computers. Has a very small physical “footprint,” but is considerably slower than other popular PC buses. 12.2.1.4. VME A high-performance bus (co-designed by Motorola, and based on Motorola’s earlier Versa-Bus standard) for constructing versatile industrial and military computers, where multiple memory, peripheral, and even microprocessor cards could be plugged in to a passive “rack” or “card cage” to facilitate custom system designs. Typical data transfer rate of 50 Mbytes/second (64 bits wide). 12.2.1.5. VXI An expansion of the VME bus, VXI (VME eXtension for Instrumentation) includes the standard VME bus along with connectors for analog signals between cards in the rack. 12.2.1.6. S-100 Sometimes called the Altair bus, this bus standard was the product of a conference in 1976, intended to serve as an interface to the Intel 8080 microprocessor chip. Similar in philosophy to the VME, where multiple function cards could be plugged in to a passive “rack,” facilitating the construction of custom systems.
12.2.1.7. MC6800 The Motorola equivalent of the Intel-centric S-100 bus, designed to interface peripheral devices to the popular Motorola 6800 microprocessor chip. 12.2.1.8. STD Stands for Simple-To-Design and is yet another passive “rack” similar to the PC/AT bus, and lends itself well toward designs based on IBM-compatible hardware. Designed by Pro-Log, it is 8 bits wide (parallel), accommodating relatively small (4.5 inch by 6.5 inch) circuit cards. 12.2.1.9. Multibus I and II Another bus intended for the flexible design of custom computer systems, designed by Intel. 16 bits wide (parallel). 12.2.1.10. CompactPCI An industrial adaptation of the personal computer PCI standard, designed as a higher-performance alternative to the older VME bus. At a bus clock speed of 66 MHz, data transfer rates are 200 Mbytes/ second (32 bit) or 400 Mbytes/sec (64 bit). 12.2.1.11. Microchannel Yet another bus, this one designed by IBM for their ill-fated PS/2 series of computers, intended for the interfacing of PC motherboards to peripheral devices. 12.2.1.12. IDE A bus used primarily for connecting personal computer hard disk drives with the appropriate peripheral cards. Widely used in today’s personal computers for hard drive and CD-ROM drive interfacing.
12.2.1.13. SCSI An alternative (technically superior to IDE) bus used for personal computer disk drives. SCSI stands for Small Computer System Interface. Used in some IBM- compatible PC’s, as well as Macintosh (Apple), and many mini and mainframe business computers. Used to interface hard drives, CD-ROM drives, floppy disk drives, printers, scanners, modems, and a host of other peripheral devices. Speeds up to 1.5 Mbytes per second for the original standard. 12.2.1.14. GPIB (IEEE 488) General Purpose Interface Bus, also known as HPIB or IEEE 488, which was intended for the interfacing of electronic test equipment such as oscilloscopes and multimeters to personal computers. 8 bit wide address/data “path” with 8 additional lines for communications control. 12.2.1.15. Centronics parallel Widely used on personal computers for interfacing printer and plotter devices. Sometimes used to interface with other peripheral devices, such as external ZIP (100 Mbyte floppy) disk drives and tape drives. 12.2.1.16. USB Universal Serial Bus, which is intended to interconnect many external peripheral devices (such as keyboards, modems, mice, etc.) to personal computers. Long used on Macintosh PC’s, it is now being installed as new equipment on IBM-compatible machines. 12.2.1.17. FireWire (IEEE 1394) A high-speed serial network capable of operating at 100, 200, or 400 Mbps with versatile features such as “hot swapping” (adding or removing devices with the power on) and flexible topology. Designed for high-performance personal computer interfacing.
12.2.1.18. Bluetooth A radio-based communications network designed for office linking of computer devices. Provisions for data security designed into this network standard. 12.2.2. Extended-distance networks 12.2.2.1. 20 mA current loop Not to be confused with the common instrumentation 4-20 mA analog standard, this is a digital communications network based on interrupting a 20 mA (or sometimes 60 mA) current loop to represent binary data. Although the low impedance gives good noise immunity, it is susceptible to wiring faults (such as breaks) which would fail the entire network. 12.2.2.2. RS-232C The most common serial network used in computer systems, often used to link peripheral devices such as printers and mice to a personal computer. Limited in speed and distance (typically 45 feet and 20 kbps, although higher speeds can be run with shorter distances). I’ve been able to run RS-232 reliably at speeds more than 100 kbps, but this was using a cable only 6 feet long! RS- 232C is often referred to simply as RS-232 (no “C”). 12.2.2.3. RS-422A/RS-485 Two serial networks designed to overcome some of the distance and versatility limitations of RS-232C. Used widely in industry to link serial devices together in electrically “noisy” plant environments. Much greater distance and speed limitations than RS-232C, typically over half a mile and at speeds approaching 10 Mbps. 12.2.2.4. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) A high-speed network which links computers and some types of peripheral devices together. “Normal” Ethernet runs at a speed of 10 million bits/second, and “Fast” Ethernet runs at 100 million bits/second. The slower (10 Mbps) Ethernet has been implemented in a variety of means on copper
wire (thick coax = “10BASE5”, thin coax = “10BASE2”, twisted-pair = “10BASE- T”), radio, and on optical fiber (“10BASE-F”). The Fast Ethernet has also been implemented on a few different means (twisted-pair, 2 pair = 100BASE-TX; twisted-pair, 4 pair = 100BASE-T4; optical fiber = 100BASE-FX). 12.2.2.5. Token ring Another high-speed network linking computer devices together, using a philosophy of communication that is much different from Ethernet, allowing for more precise response times from individual network devices, and greater immunity to network wiring damage. 12.2.2.6. FDDI A very high-speed network exclusively implemented on fiber-optic cabling. 12.2.2.7. Modbus/Modbus Plus Originally implemented by the Modicon corporation, a large maker of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) for linking remote I/O (Input/Output) racks with a PLC processor. Still quite popular. 12.2.2.8. Profibus Originally implemented by the Siemens corporation, another large maker of PLC equipment. 12.2.2.9. Foundation Fieldbus A high-performance bus expressly designed to allow multiple process instruments (transmitters, controllers, valve positioners) to communicate with host computers and with each other. May ultimately displace the 4-20 mA analog signal as the standard means of interconnecting process control instrumentation in the future.
14.3. Data Flow Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between individual devices that are interconnected. The flow of information, or data, between nodes, can take a variety of forms: With simplex communication, all data flow is unidirectional: from the designated transmitter to the designated receiver. BogusBus is an example of simplex communication, where the transmitter sent information to the remote monitoring location, but no information is ever sent back to the water tank. If all we want to do is send information one-way, then simplex is just fine. Most applications, however, demand more: With duplex communication, the flow of information is bi- directional for each device. Duplex can be further divided into two sub- categories:
The Half-Duplex works like a type of communication, that may be likened to two tin cans on the ends of a single taut string: Either can may be used to transmit or receive, but not at the same time. Full-duplex communication is more like a true telephone, where two people can talk at the same time and hear one another simultaneously, the mouthpiece of one phone transmitting the earpiece of the other, and vice versa. Full-duplex is often facilitated through the use of two separate channels or networks, with an individual set of wires for each direction of communication. It is sometimes accomplished by means of multiple-frequency carrier waves, especially in radio links, where one frequency is reserved for each direction of communication.
14.5. Optical Data Communication A modern alternative to sending (binary) digital information via electric voltage signals is to use optical (light) signals. Electrical signals from digital circuits (high/low voltages) may be converted into discrete optical signals (light or no light) with LEDs or solid-state lasers. Likewise, light signals can be translated back into electrical form by photodiodes or phototransistors for introduction into the inputs of gate circuits. Transmitting digital information in optical form may be done in open air, simply by aiming a laser at a photodetector at a remote distance, but interference with the beam in the form of temperature inversion layers, dust, rain, fog, and other obstructions can present significant engineering problems:
One way to avoid the problems of open-air optical data transmission is to send the light pulses down an ultra-pure glass fibre. Glass fibres will “conduct” a beam of light much as a copper wire will conduct electrons, with the advantage of completely avoiding all the associated problems of inductance, capacitance, and external interference plaguing electrical signals. Optical fibres keep the light beam contained within the fibre core by a phenomenon known as total internal reflectance. An optical fibre is composed of two layers of ultra- pure glass, each layer made of glass with a slightly different refractive index, or capacity to “bend” light. With one type of glass concentrically layered around a central glass core, light introduced into the central core cannot escape outside the fibre, but is confined to travel within the core: Optical fibres exceed the data-handling performance of copper wire in almost every regard. They are totally immune to electromagnetic interference and have very high bandwidths. However, they are not without certain weaknesses.
14.6. Network Topology 14.6.1. Point-to-Point Connecting two digital devices with a network, would have a kind of network known as “point-to-point:” The network wiring is symbolized as a single line between the two devices. It may be a twisted pair of wires, a coaxial cable, an optical fibre, or even a seven-conductor BogusBus. 14.6.2. Bus Topology A type of network which uses a common transmission medium where all nodes of network are connected to it.
14.6.3. Star Topology A type of network that uses a hub, switch, or computer to act as a central network and which all the nodes connect to it. The selected hub, switch or computer acts as a server. 14.6.4. Ring Topology This topology provides the best reliability with the least amount of wiring. Since each node has two connection points to the ring, a single break in any part of the ring doesn’t affect the integrity of the network.
14.7. Network Protocols The standardized method by which nodes are allowed to transmit to the bus or network wiring is called a protocol. There are many different protocols for arbitrating the use of a common network between multiple nodes, and I’ll cover just a few here. However, it is good to be aware of these few, and to understand why some work better for some purposes than others. Usually, a specific protocol is associated with a standardized type of network. This is merely another “layer” to the set of standards which are specified under the titles of various networks. The International Standards Organization (ISO) has specified a general architecture of network specifications in their DIS7498 model (applicable to most any digital network). Consisting of seven “layers,” this outline, named the Open Systems Interconnection Layer (OSI Layer) attempts to categorize all levels of abstraction necessary to communicate digital data. Level 1: Physical Specifies electrical and mechanical details of communication: wire type, connector design, signal types and levels. Level 2: Data link Defines formats of messages, how data is to be addressed, and error detection/correction techniques. Level 3: Network Establishes procedures for encapsulation of data into “packets” for transmission and reception. Level 4: Transport Among other things, the transport layer defines how complete data files are to be handled over a network. Level 5: Session Organizes data transfer in terms of beginning and end of a specific transmission. Analogous to job control on a multitasking computer operating system.
Level 6: Presentation Includes definitions for character sets, terminal control, and graphics commands so that abstract data can be readily encoded and decoded between communicating devices. Level 7: Application The end-user standards for generating and/or interpreting communicated data in its final form. In other words, the actual computer programs using the communicated data. 14.8. Practical considerations - Digital Communication A principal consideration for industrial control networks, where the monitoring and control of real-life processes must often occur quickly and at set times, is the guaranteed maximum communication time from one node to another. The ability for a network to guarantee data “throughput” is called determinism. A deterministic network has a guaranteed maximum time delay for data transfer from node to node, whereas a non-deterministic network does not. The preeminent example of a non-deterministic network is Ethernet, where the nodes rely on random time-delay circuits to reset and re-attempt transmission after a collision.

What we are witnessing here is a crisis of, unknown magnitude. Last year was hard shit in the store from the overwhelming freight and deliveries. The online sector part of it came back and much earliein worse ways this year. I predicted this towards the ending of last years craze. In the 5 years I've been here I can sense the wolves closing in on those who remain. People have been singled out and left alone against them. The dynamic we experience here builds and builds and builds within people and then they react and that sole instance when they do, they are taken out as if they were never here and its on to the next supposed replacement. No explanation needed. One by one we are drowning and wasting away to the overwhelming dynamic/online sector in all respects.
The reality I was accustomed to way back when is no more and this new one where all I do is spend all day running around in deliveries stuff/loadouts/working the aisles on equipment, etc, facing the great beyond. The dynamic is turning my own people against me; treated like garbage and other peers being subjected to this and other ongoing pressing issues. Metrics are at all time lows. People are distraught. Nothing is getting done, nothing is sustainable. I know we're losing, but I want to know if we've lost. I've done my time long enough, and the end to the business I conduct here is nearing its conclusion.

1. Digital-Analog Conversion 13.1. Introduction to Digital-Analog Conversion A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values; at any given time, it can only take on one of a finite number of values. An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.

The following techniques can be used for Digital to Analog Conversion: 1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is analog and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data. The binary signal when modulated gives a zero value when the binary data represents 0 while gives the carrier output when data is 1. The frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain constant. Advantages of amplitude shift Keying – It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber; the receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it comparatively inexpensive; it uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth efficiency. Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying – It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost due to this; it has lower power efficiency. 2. Frequency Shift keying – In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data. The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary low input. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.
Advantages of frequency shift Keying – Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems beset by ASK; it has lower chances of an error; it provides high signal to noise ratio; the transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate application. Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying – It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth efficiency; it has lower power efficiency. 3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data. The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains constant. It is further categorized as follows: 1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest form of phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is changed according to the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying, difference of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1 and binary 0. This is regarded as the most robust digital modulation technique and is used for long distance wireless communication. 2. Quadrature phase shift keying: This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e. we can code two bits onto one single element. It uses four phases to encode two bits per symbol. QPSK uses phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees. It has double data rate carrying capacity compared to BPSK as two bits are mapped on each constellation points. Advantages of phase shift Keying – It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK; it has lower chances of an error; it allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more efficiently as compared to FSK. Disadvantages of phase shift Keying – It offers low bandwidth efficiency; the detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very complex; it is a non- coherent reference signal.
13.2. The 2nR DAC: Binary-Weighted-Input Digital-to-Analog Converter The 2nR DAC circuit, otherwise known as the binary-weighted-input DAC, is a variation on the inverting summing op-amp circuit. (Note that "summing" circuits are sometimes also referred to as "summer" circuits.) The classic inverting summing circuit is an operational amplifier using negative feedback for controlled gain, with several voltage inputs and one voltage output. The output voltage is the inverted (opposite polarity) sum of all input voltages: For a simple inverting summing circuit, all resistors must be of equal value. If any of the input resistors were different, the input voltages would have different degrees of effect on the output, and the output voltage would not be a true sum. 13.3. The 2R DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) The 2R DAC circuit is an alternative to the binary-weighted-input (2nR) DAC which uses fewer unique resistor values. A disadvantage of the former DAC design was its requirement of several different precise input resistor values: one unique value per binary input bit. Manufacture may be simplified if there are fewer different resistor values to purchase, stock, and sort prior to assembly. Of course, we could take the binary-weighted-input DAC circuit and modify it to use a single input resistance value, by connecting multiple resistors together in series:
Unfortunately, this approach merely substitutes one type of complexity for another: volume of components over diversity of component values. There is, however, a more efficient design methodology. By constructing a different kind of resistor network on the input of our summing circuit, we can achieve the same kind of binary weighting with only two kinds of resistor values, and with only a modest increase in resistor count. This “ladder” network looks like this: Mathematically analyzing this ladder network is a bit more complex than for the previous circuit, where each input resistor provided an easily-calculated gain for that bit.
13.4. Flash ADC Also called the parallel A/D converter, this circuit is the simplest to understand. It is formed of a series of comparators, each one comparing the input signal to a unique reference voltage. The comparator outputs connect to the inputs of a priority encoder circuit, which then produces a binary output. The following illustration shows a 3-bit flash ADC circuit: Vref is a stable reference voltage provided by a precision voltage regulator as part of the converter circuit, not shown in the schematic. As the analog input voltage exceeds the reference voltage at each comparator, the comparator outputs will sequentially saturate to a high state. The priority encoder generates a binary number based on the highest-order active input, ignoring all other active inputs. When operated, the flash ADC produces an output that looks something like this:
13.5. Digital Ramp ADC Also known as the stairstep-ramp, or simply counter A/D converter, this is also fairly easy to understand but unfortunately suffers from several limitations. The basic idea is to connect the output of a free-running binary counter to the input of a DAC, then compare the analog output of the DAC with the analog input signal to be digitized and use the comparator’s output to tell the counter when to stop counting and reset. The following schematic shows the basic idea: The effect of this circuit is to produce a DAC output that ramps up to whatever level the analog input signal is at, output the binary number corresponding to that level, and start over again. Plotted over time, it looks like this:
Note how the time between updates (new digital output values) changes depending on how high the input voltage is. For low signal levels, the updates are rather close-spaced. For higher signal levels, they are spaced further apart in time: For many ADC applications, this variation in update frequency (sample time) would not be acceptable. This, and the fact that the circuit’s need to count all the way from 0 at the beginning of each count cycle makes for relatively slow sampling of the analog signal, places the digital-ramp ADC at a disadvantage to other counter strategies. 13.6. Successive Approximation ADC One method of addressing the digital ramp ADC’s shortcomings is the so-called successive-approximation ADC. The only change in this design is a very special counter circuit known as a successive-approximation register. Instead of counting up in binary sequence, this register counts by trying all values of bits starting with the most-significant bit and finishing at the least-significant bit. Throughout the count process, the register monitors the comparator’s output to see if the binary count is less than or greater than the analog signal input, adjusting the bit values accordingly. The way the register counts is identical to the “trial-and-fit” method of decimal-to-binary conversion, whereby different values of bits are tried from MSB to LSB to get a binary number that equals the original decimal number. The advantage to this counting strategy is much faster results: the DAC output converges on the analog signal input in much larger steps than with the 0-to-full count sequence of a regular counter. Without showing the inner workings of the successive-approximation register (SAR), the circuit looks like this:
It should be noted that the SAR is generally capable of outputting the binary number in serial (one bit at a time) format, thus eliminating the need for a shift register. Plotted over time, the operation of a successive-approximation ADC looks like this:
13.7. Tracking ADC A third variation on the counter-DAC-based converter theme is, in my estimation, the most elegant. Instead of a regular “up” counter driving the DAC, this circuit uses an up/down counter. The counter is continuously clocked, and the up/down control line is driven by the output of the comparator. So, when the analog input signal exceeds the DAC output, the counter goes into the “count up” mode. When the DAC output exceeds the analog input, the counter switches into the “count down” mode. Either way, the DAC output always counts in the proper direction to track the input signal. Notice how no shift register is needed to buffer the binary count at the end of a cycle. Since the counter’s output continuously tracks the input (rather than counting to meet the input and then resetting back to zero), the binary output is legitimately updated with every clock pulse. An advantage of this converter circuit is speed, since the counter never has to reset. Note the behavior of this circuit:
Note the much faster update time than any of the other “counting” ADC circuits. Also note how at the very beginning of the plot where the counter had to “catch up” with the analog signal, the rate of change for the output was identical to that of the first counting ADC. Also, with no shift register in this circuit, the binary output would actually ramp up rather than jump from zero to an accurate count as it did with the counter and successive approximation ADC circuits. 13.8. Slope (integrating) ADC It is possible to avoid using a DAC if we substitute an analog ramping circuit and a digital counter with precise timing. The is the basic idea behind the so- called single-slope, or integrating ADC. Instead of using a DAC with a ramped output, we use an op-amp circuit called an integrator to generate a sawtooth waveform which is then compared against the analog input by a comparator. The time it takes for the sawtooth waveform to exceed the input signal voltage level is measured by means of a digital counter clocked with a precise- frequency square wave (usually from a crystal oscillator). The basic schematic diagram is shown here:
This ADC circuit behaves very much like the digital ramp ADC, except that the comparator reference voltage is a smooth sawtooth waveform rather than a “stairstep:” The single-slope ADC suffers all the disadvantages of the digital ramp ADC, with the added drawback of calibration drift. The accurate correspondence of this ADC’s output with its input is dependent on the voltage slope of the integrator being matched to the counting rate of the counter (the clock frequency). With the digital ramp ADC, the clock frequency had no effect on conversion accuracy, only on update time. In this circuit, since the rate of integration and the rate of count are independent of each other, variation between the two is inevitable as it ages, and will result in a loss of accuracy.
The only good thing to say about this circuit is that it avoids the use of a DAC, which reduces circuit complexity. An answer to this calibration drift dilemma is found in a design variation called the dual-slope converter. In the dual-slope converter, an integrator circuit is driven positive and negative in alternating cycles to ramp down and then up, rather than being reset to 0 volts at the end of every cycle. This technique of analog-to-digital conversion escapes the calibration drift problem of the single- slope ADC because both the integrator’s integration coefficient (or “gain”) and the counter’s rate of speed are in effect during the entire “winding” and “unwinding” cycle portions. If the counter’s clock speed were to suddenly increase, this would shorten the fixed time period where the integrator “winds up” (resulting in a lesser voltage accumulated by the integrator), but it would also mean that it would count faster during the period of time when the integrator was allowed to “unwind” at a fixed rate. Another important advantage of this method is that the input signal becomes averaged as it drives the integrator during the fixed-time portion of the cycle. Any changes in the analog signal during that period of time have a cumulative effect on the digital output at the end of that cycle. 13.9. Delta-Sigma ADC One of the more advanced ADC technologies is the so-called delta-sigma, or ΔΣ (using the proper Greek letter notation). In mathematics and physics, the capital Greek letter delta (Δ) represents difference or change, while the capital letter sigma (Σ) represents summation: the adding of multiple terms together. Sometimes this converter is referred to by the same Greek letters in reverse order: sigma-delta, or ΣΔ. In a ΔΣ converter, the analog input voltage signal is connected to the input of an integrator, producing a voltage rate-of-change, or slope, at the output corresponding to input magnitude. This ramping voltage is then compared against ground potential (0 volts) by a comparator. The comparator acts as a sort of 1-bit ADC, producing 1 bit of output (“high” or “low”) depending on whether the integrator output is positive or negative. The comparator’s output is then latched through a D-type flip-flop clocked at a high frequency and fed back to another input channel on the integrator, to drive the integrator in the direction of a 0 volt output. The basic circuit looks like
13.10. Practical Considerations of ADC Circuits Perhaps the most important consideration of an ADC is its resolution. Resolution is the number of binary bits output by the converter. Because ADC circuits take in an analog signal, which is continuously variable, and resolve it into one of many discrete steps, it is important to know how many of these steps there are in total. Resolution is very important in data acquisition systems (circuits designed to interpret and record physical measurements in electronic form). Another important consideration of ADC circuitry is its sample frequency, or conversion rate. This is simply the speed at which the converter outputs a new binary number. Like resolution, this consideration is linked to the specific application of the ADC.
In data acquisition terminology, the highest-frequency waveform that an ADC can theoretically capture is the so-called Nyquist frequency, equal to one-half of the ADC’s sample frequency. Therefore, if an ADC circuit has a sample frequency of 5000 Hz, the highest-frequency waveform it can successfully resolve will be the Nyquist frequency of 2500 Hz. If an ADC is subjected to an analog input signal whose frequency exceeds the Nyquist frequency for that ADC, the converter will output a digitized signal of falsely low frequency. This phenomenon is known as aliasing. The Nyquist frequency is an absolute maximum frequency limit for an ADC and does not represent the highest practical frequency measurable. To be safe, one shouldn’t expect an ADC to successfully resolve any frequency greater than one-fifth to one-tenth of its sample frequency. A practical means of preventing aliasing is to place a low-pass filter before the input of the ADC, to block any signal frequencies greater than the practical limit. This way, the ADC circuitry will be prevented from seeing any excessive frequencies and thus will not try to digitize them. It is generally considered better that such frequencies go unconverted than to have them be “aliased” and appear in the output as false signals. Yet another measure of ADC performance is something called step recovery. This is a measure of how quickly an ADC changes its output to match a large, sudden change in the analog input. In some converter technologies especially, step recovery is a serious limitation. An ideal ADC has a great many bits for very fine resolution, samples at lightning-fast speeds, and recovers from steps instantly. Different ADC technologies, though, have different strengths. Here is a summary of them ranked from best to worst: Resolution/complexity ratio: Single-slope integrating, dual-slope integrating, counter, tracking, successive approximation, flash. Speed: Flash, tracking, successive approximation, single-slope integrating & counter, dual-slope integrating. Step recovery: Flash, successive-approximation, single-slope integrating & counter, dual-slope integrating, tracking. Please bear in mind that the rankings of these different ADC technologies depend on other factors

1. Digital Storage (Memory) 12.1. Why digital? The advantages of the digital systems over the analog systems are the reproducibility of the results and accuracy; the ease of design (no special math skills needed to visualize the behavior of small digital logic circuits); the flexibility and functionality; the programmability; the speed (a digital logic element can produce an output in less than 10 nanoseconds) and the economy (due to the integration of millions of digital logic elements on a single miniature chip forming low cost integrated circuit (ICs). 12.2. Digital Memory Terms and Concepts data – stored information address – the location of the data

tracks and sectors – physical location of the data random access – to address quickly and precisely a specific data location within the device sequential access – the function of the random access is not possible here writing – storing a piece of data to a memory device reading – retrieving data from a memory device read-only memory (ROM) – pre-written memory device, that does not allow the writing of new data read-write memory – pre-written or blank memory device, that allows to be re- written volatile memory – an electric power is maintained to the circuit non-volatile memory – no source of power is needed to maintain data storage random access memory (RAM) – volatile electronic memory read-only memory (ROM) – non-volatile memory integrated circuit 12.3. Modern Nonmechanical Memory A very simple type of electronic memory is the bistable multivibrator. Capable of storing a single bit of data, it is volatile (requiring power to maintain its memory) and very fast. The D-latch is probably the simplest implementation of a bistable multivibrator for memory usage, the D input serving as the data “write” input, the Q output serving as the “read” output, and the enable input serving as the read/write control line:
If we desire more than one bit’s worth of storage, we’ll have to have many latches arranged in some kind of an array where we can selectively address which one (or which set) we’re reading from or writing to. Using a pair of tristate buffers, we can connect both the data write input and the data read output to a common data bus line, and enable those buffers to either connect the Q output to the data line (READ), connect the D input to the data line (WRITE), or keep both buffers in the High-Z state to disconnect D and Q from the data line (unaddressed mode). One memory “cell” would look like this, internally: When the address enable input is 0, both tristate buffers will be placed in high- Z mode, and the latch will be disconnected from the data input/output (bus) line. Only when the address enable input is active (1) will the latch be connected to the data bus. Every latch circuit, of course, will be enabled with a different “address enable” (AE) input line, which will come from a 1-of-n output decoder:
In the above circuit, 16 memory cells are individually addressed with a 4- bit binary code input into the decoder. If a cell is not addressed, it will be disconnected from the 1-bit data bus by its internal tristate buffers: consequently, data cannot be either written or read through the bus to or from that cell. Only the cell circuit that is addressed by the 4-bit decoder input will be accessible through the data bus. This simple memory circuit is random- access and volatile. Technically, it is known as static RAM. Its total memory capacity is 16 bits. Since it contains 16 addresses and has a data bus that is 1 bit wide, it would be designated as a 16 x 1 bit static RAM circuit. As you can see, it takes an incredible number of gates (and multiple transistors per gate) to construct a practical static RAM circuit. This makes the static RAM a relatively low-density device, with less capacity than most other types of RAM technology per unit IC chip space. Because each cell circuit consumes a certain amount of power, the overall power consumption for a large array of cells can be quite high. Early static RAM banks in personal computers consumed a fair amount of power and generated a lot of heat, too. CMOS IC technology has made it possible to lower the specific power consumption of static RAM circuits, but low storage density is still an issue. To address this, engineers
turned to the capacitor instead of the bistable multivibrator as a means of storing binary data. A tiny capacitor could serve as a memory cell, complete with a single MOSFET transistor for connecting it to the data bus for charging (writing a 1), discharging (writing a 0), or reading. Unfortunately, such tiny capacitors have very small capacitances, and their charge tends to “leak” away through any circuit impedances quite rapidly. To combat this tendency, engineers designed circuits internal to the RAM memory chip which would periodically read all cells and recharge (or “refresh”) the capacitors as needed. Although this added to the complexity of the circuit, it still required far less componentry than a RAM built of multivibrators. They called this type of memory circuit a dynamic RAM, because of its need of periodic refreshing. Recent advances in IC chip manufacturing have led to the introduction of flash memory, which works on a capacitive storage principle like the dynamic RAM but uses the insulated gate of a MOSFET as the capacitor itself. Before the advent of transistors (especially the MOSFET), engineers had to implement digital circuitry with gates constructed from vacuum tubes. The enormous comparative size and power consumption of a vacuum tube as compared to a transistor made memory circuits like static and dynamic RAM a practical impossibility. Other, rather ingenious, techniques to store digital data without the use of moving parts were developed. 12.4. Historical, Nonmechanical Memory Technologies Perhaps the most ingenious technique was that of the delay line. A delay line is any kind of device which delays the propagation of a pulse or wave signal. The delay line “stores” data on a very temporary basis if the signal is not strengthened periodically, but the very fact that it stores data at all is a phenomenon exploitable for memory technology. Early computer delay lines used long tubes filled with liquid mercury, which was used as the physical medium through which sound waves traveled along the length of the tube. An electrical/sound transducer was mounted at each end, one to create sound waves from electrical impulses, and the other to generate electrical impulses from sound waves. A stream of serial binary data was sent to the transmitting transducer as a voltage signal. The sequence of sound waves would travel from left to right through the mercury in the tube and be received by the transducer at the other end. The receiving transducer would receive the pulses in the same order as they were transmitted:
The next major advance in computer memory came when engineers turned to magnetic materials as a means of storing binary data. It was discovered that certain compounds of iron, namely “ferrite,” possessed hysteresis curves that were almost square: Shown on a graph with the strength of the applied magnetic field on the horizontal axis (field intensity), and the actual magnetization (orientation of electron spins in the ferrite material) on the vertical axis (flux density), ferrite won’t become magnetized one direction until the applied field exceeds a critical threshold value. Once that critical value is exceeded, the electrons in the ferrite “snap” into magnetic alignment and the ferrite becomes magnetized.
Jay Forrester of MIT applied this principle in inventing the magnetic “core” memory, which became the dominant computer memory technology during the 1970’s. A grid of wires, electrically insulated from one another, crossed through the center of many ferrite rings, each of which being called a “core.” As DC current moved through any wire from the power supply to ground, a circular magnetic field was generated around that energized wire. The resistor values were set so that the amount of current at the regulated power supply voltage would produce slightly more than 1/2 the critical magnetic field strength needed to magnetize any one of the ferrite rings. Therefore, if column #4 wire was energized, all the cores on that column would be subjected to the magnetic field from that one wire, but it would not be strong enough to change the magnetization of any of those cores. However, if column #4 wire and row #5 wire were both energized, the core at that intersection of column #4 and row #5 would be subjected to a sum of those two magnetic fields: a magnitude strong enough to “set” or “reset” the magnetization of that core. In other
words, each core was addressed by the intersection of row and column. The distinction between “set” and “reset” was the direction of the core’s magnetic polarity, and that bit value of data would be determined by the polarity of the voltages (with respect to ground) that the row and column wires would be energized with. The following photograph shows a core memory board from a Data General brand, “Nova” model computer, circa late 1960’s or early 1970’s. It had a total storage capacity of 4 kbytes. A ball-point pen is shown for size comparison: 12.5. Read-Only Memory (ROM) Read-only memory (ROM) is similar in design to static or dynamic RAM circuits, except that the “latching” mechanism is made for one-time (or limited) operation. The simplest type of ROM is that which uses tiny “fuses” which can be selectively blown or left alone to represent the two binary states. Obviously, once one of the little fuses is blown, it cannot be made whole again, so the writing of such ROM circuits is one-time only. Because it can be written (programmed) once, these circuits are sometimes referred to as PROMs (Programmable Read-Only Memory).
However, not all writing methods are as permanent as blown fuses. If a transistor latch can be made which is resettable only with significant effort, a memory device that’s something of a cross between a RAM and a ROM can be built. Such a device is given a rather oxymoronic name: the EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory). EPROMs come in two basic varieties: Electrically-erasable (EEPROM) and Ultraviolet-erasable (UV/EPROM). Both types of EPROMs use capacitive charge MOSFET devices to latch on or off. UV/EPROMs are “cleared” by long-term exposure to ultraviolet light. They are easy to identify: they have a transparent glass window which exposes the silicon chip material to light. Once programmed, you must cover that glass window with tape to prevent ambient light from degrading the data over time. EPROMs are often programmed using higher signal voltages than what is used during “read-only” mode. 12.6. Memory with moving parts: ‘’Drives’’ Modern disk drives use multiple platters made of hard material (hence the name, “hard drive”) with multiple read/write heads for every platter. The gap between the head and platter is much smaller than the diameter of a human hair. If the hermetically sealed environment inside a hard disk drive is contaminated with outside air, the hard drive will be rendered useless. Dust will lodge between the heads and the platters, causing damage to the surface of the media. Here is a hard drive with four platters, although the angle of the shot only allows viewing of the top platter. This unit is complete with drive motor, read/write heads, and associated electronics. It has a storage capacity of 340 Mbytes, and is about the same length as the ball-point pen shown in the previous photograph:
An incentive for digital data storage technology advancement was the advent of digitally encoded music. A joint venture between Sony and Phillips resulted in the release of the “compact audio disc” (CD) to the public in the late 1980’s. This technology is a read-only type, the media being a transparent plastic disc backed by a thin film of aluminum. Binary bits are encoded as pits in the plastic which vary the path length of a low-power laser beam. Data is read by the low-power laser (the beam of which can be focused more precisely than normal light) reflecting off the aluminum to a photocell receiver. The advantages of CDs over magnetic tape are legion. Being digital, the information is highly resistant to corruption. Being non-contact in operation, there is no wear incurred through playing. Being optical, they are immune to magnetic fields (which can easily corrupt data on magnetic tape or disks). It is possible to purchase CD “burner” drives which contain the high-power laser necessary to write to a blank disc. Following on the heels of the music industry, the video entertainment industry has leveraged the technology of optical storage with the introduction of the Digital Video Disc, or DVD. Using a similar-sized plastic disc as the music CD, a DVD employs closer spacing of pits to achieve much greater storage density. This increased density allows feature-length movies to be encoded on DVD media, complete with trivia information about the movie, director’s notes, and so on. Much effort is being directed toward the development of a practical read/write optical disc (CD-W). Success has been found in using chemical substances whose color may be changed through exposure to bright laser light, then “read” by lower-intensity light. These optical discs are immediately identified by their characteristically colored surfaces, as opposed to the silver-colored underside of a standard CD

Hi guys,
I have 3 Rolex, a Datejust that I've bought new in 2020, a Submariner that I've bought second-hand that is from 2013, and a Day-date that I've bought new in 2023
According to Rolex, both the Datejust and the Day-date have a 70 hours power reserve
But I'm a bit concerned and cannot find exact answers, does the power reserve wear off over time ?
Because my Submariner seems to have very low power reserve, I've been wearing it the past days and when I woke up this morning after 7hours of sleep, it was not working. So it would be annoying if for the Day-date and Datejust I am loosing the max of 70 hours power reserve over time...
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So I am wondering if not wearing one watch for a while makes the power reserve shorter over time ?
Which would justify the need to buy a watch winder I guess ?
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I hope you can help me because it's quite concerning to pay this much for watches if the power reserve gets shorter if you don't wear them